Aspirin and Other Non-steroidal Anti-inflammatory Drugs (NSAIDs)
Summary
Aspirin and other non-steroidal anti-inflammatory drugs (NSAIDs) such as ibuprofen and celecoxib (Celebrex) are used to reduce inflammation and pain. Compelling research is emerging that some NSAIDs may improve survival, make some cancer treatments more effective and reduce the risk of cancer.
NSAIDs are very effective at treating pain. Limited evidence shows they also address other common side effects and symptoms that many people with cancer experience.
Safety is a concern, especially with long-term use. We strongly recommend medical supervision with use.
We rate NSAIDs overall:
Evidence of Effectiveness
Treating Cancer 
- Improved survival in bladder cancer, breast cancer, colorectal cancer, head and neck cancer, lung cancer and pancreatic cancer
- Improved response to treatment
- Reduced metastasis in some types of cancer
- Good clinical evidence of effects or effectiveness with hundreds of people or more
Optimizing Your Body Terrain 
Inflammation and insulin resistance support cancer growth. See Body Terrain and the Tumor Microenvironment.
- Anti-inflammatory: substantial evidence of effects or effectiveness
- Some evidence of altered glucose metabolism
Managing Side Effects and Promoting Wellness
Reducing Cancer Risk 
- Benefit vs risk of use varies considerably between aspirin (moderate benefit with lower risk of serious side effects) and non-aspirin NSAIDs (moderate benefit with higher risk of serious side effects).
- Benefit varies considerably by cancer type:
- Good evidence of reduced cancer risk with colorectal and prostate cancers
- Limited evidence of reduced cancer risk with breast and liver cancers
- No evidence of reduced risk with bladder, esophageal, lung, pancreatic, stomach or uterine cancers with use by people aged 65 or over
- Clinical evidence from multiple studies / reviews / meta-analyses
Use by Integrative Oncology Experts 
- See Integrative Programs, Protocols and Medical Systems below
Safety
- NSAIDs can have serious, even life-threatening side effects. Some NSAIDs have more frequent or more serious side effects than others. We strongly enourage medical supervision with use.
- Serious side effects include bleeding, cardiovascular problems, ulcers and kidney damage.
- See Cautions below for more information about cautions with each type of NSAID.
Affordability and Ease of Access
- Aspirin, ibuprofen (Advil, Motrin) and naproxen (Aleve and other brands) are widely available in drugstores and many grocery stores.
- Of the NSAIDs reviewed on this page, these require a prescription in the US:
- Celecoxib (Celebrex)
- Diclofenac (Cambia and other brands)
- Ibuprofen (at higher doses)
- Indomethacin (Indocin, Tivorbex)
- Ketorolac (Acuvail, Acular LS, Acular, and ReadySharp)
- Sulindac (Clinoril)
- Prices are generally low to moderate, and costs for prescription drugs may be covered by insurance.
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Authors
Nancy Hepp, MS, BCCT Project ManagerDetails and Evidence
COX InhibitorsYou’ll see throughout this page mentions of COX-2 inhibitors. Cyclooxygenase-2 (COX-2) is an enzyme responsible for inflammation and pain. Nonsteroidal anti-inflammatory drugs (NSAIDs) that directly target COX-2:1 More COX-2 selective: meloxicam, nimesulide
NSAIDs that are non-selective COX inhibitors:
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Because the safety profiles and cautions can be very different between aspirin and other NSAIDs, we list the evidence separately whenever possible, even when the impacts with cancer are similar. Some studies lump the effects of aspirin and other NSAIDs together, and so we can evaluate only what researchers report. For many types of cancer and side effects, you may see up to three sections:
- All NSAIDs combined
- Aspirin
- Non-aspirin NSAIDs
We encourage our readers to evaluate the safety and cautions regarding each type of NSAID along with the evidence of effectiveness and potential benefit in your type of cancer or symptoms. We also strongly encourage you to seek professional medical supervision in using any NSAIDs, even those available without a prescription.
Non-aspirin Nonsteroidal Anti-inflammatory Drugs (NSAIDs) Reviewed on This Page
Further NSAIDs are listed by the US Food and Drug Administration: FDA strengthens warning that non-aspirin nonsteroidal anti-inflammatory drugs (NSAIDs) can cause heart attacks or strokes
| Generic name | Brand name(s) |
|---|---|
|
Celecoxib |
Celebrex |
|
Diclofenac |
Cambia, Cataflam, Dyloject, Flector, Pennsaid, Solaraze, Voltaren, Voltaren-XR, Zipsor, Zorvolex, Arthrotec (combination with misoprostol) |
|
Ibuprofen* |
Advil, Caldolor, Children’s Advil, Children’s Elixsure IB, Children’s Motrin, Ibu-Tab, Ibuprohm, Motrin IB, Motrin Migraine Pain, Profen, Tab-Profen, Duexis (combination with famotidine), Reprexain (combination with hydrocodone), Vicoprofen (combination with hydrocodone) |
|
Indomethacin |
Indocin, Tivorbex |
|
Ketorolac |
Sprix |
|
Naproxen* |
Aleve, Anaprox, Anaprox DS, EC-Naprosyn, Naprelan, Naprosyn, Treximet (combination with sumatriptan), Vimovo (combination with esomeprazole) |
|
Sulindac |
Clinoril |
*Many over-the-counter (OTC) products contain this drug.
Clinical Practice Guidelines
Aspirin
US Preventive Services Task Force (USPSTF) issued a grade B recommendation for the use of low-dose aspirin (75 to 100 mg/day) for the primary prevention of cardiovascular disease and colorectal cancer in adults 50 to 59 years of age who have a 10 percent or greater 10-year cardiovascular disease risk, are not at increased risk for bleeding, have a life expectancy of at least 10 years and are willing to take low-dose aspirin daily for at least 10 years. The USPSTF also recommended that the decision to use low-dose aspirin for preventing cardiovascular disease and colorectal cancer in adults age 60 to 69 years who have a 10 percent or greater 10-year cardiovascular disease risk should be an individual one. (grade C)2
Other NSAIDs
USPSTF acknowledges benefits in certain high-risk groups but is against general use of non-aspirin NSAIDs for prevention due to the risk of serious cardiovascular and gastrointestinal side effects.3
Treating the Cancer
Clinical Evidence
NSAID use shows anticancer action and improves survival in some cancer types, as detailed below. The impact varies substantially by the type of NSAID used, the cancer type and stage, and characteristics of the people in the studies, such as body weight, presence of diabetes, or other therapies used in tandem.
All Cancers Combined
Non-aspirin NSAIDs
Diclofenac reduced resistance or increased sensitivity to chemo- and radiotherapies4
Adrenal Cancer
Non-aspirin NSAIDs
Diclofenac
- Anticancer effects, including positive responses in case studies in high-risk refractory or metastatic neuroblastoma5
Bladder Cancer
Aspirin
- Increased survival with use at least three times a week by people with bladder cancer6
Breast Cancer
All NSAIDs Combined
- Increased survival with breast cancer7
- Reduced size of the primary tumor, improved lymph node status and fewer involved axillary nodes (lymph nodes near the breast)8
- Reduced metastasis with use both before and after cancer diagnosis9
Aspirin
Conflicting findings to date indicate that any benefit in breast cancer may be small:
- Nonsignificant trend toward improved survival with low-dose aspirin in a systematic review10
- Increased survival with use at least three times a week in some large studies,11 but no improved survival in another12
- Reduced metastasis13
- Synergistic effects of aspirin with exemestane in treating estrogen-responsive breast cancer14
Non-aspirin NSAIDs
COX-2 inhibitors including celecoxib/Celebrex
- Improved treatment effects in combination with an aromatase inhibitor, but only in tamoxifen-resistant women15
- Possible synergistic effects of celecoxib with exemestane and tamoxifen in treating estrogen-responsive breast cancer,16 including longer time to progression with exemestane with no additional adverse effects compared to exemestane alone17
Diclofenac
- Improved disease-free and overall survival when used at the time of conservative breast cancer surgery18
Ketorolac
- Improved disease-free survival in the first few years after surgery when used around the time of surgery19
Colorectal Cancer
All NSAIDs Combined
- Inhibited gene mutations that are linked to uncontrolled proliferation of cells, and also induced cell death (apoptosis), improving survival20
- Improved survival for people with type 2 diabetes with stage 2 and 3 colorectal cancer treated with both aspirin and metformin21
- Overcame resistance to therapies:22
- Chemotherapy: some studies have shown survival benefit, but many have not shown improved patient outcomes.
- Molecular targeted therapy combining NSAIDs with targeted therapy (cetuximab): improved overall survival in colorectal cancer in people with KRAS wild-type mutations but not KRAS-mutated cancers.
Aspirin
- Improved survival in general,23 but considerable variation in individual study findings depending on study specifics:
- Improved overall survival when used after diagnosis but not before diagnosis, and only in patients positive for COX-2 expression (which influences tumor invasiveness and inflammatory responses) and mutated PIK3CA tumors24
- Improved colorectal cancer-specific survival and lower odds of diagnosis with distant metastases with long-term regular use of aspirin (more than 15 times per month) before diagnosis; beginning regular aspirin use only after diagnosis improved survival compared with no aspirin use25
- Improved survival in those with wild-type BRAF tumors but not mutated BRAF tumors26 or with PI3K mutation27
- Improved all-cause and cancer-related survival at varying doses, irrespective of body mass index28
- Improved survival for type II diabetes patients with stage 2 and 3 colorectal cancer treated with both aspirin and metformin29
- Improved survival in tumors with low PD-LI expression (which inhibits immune action against tumors) with aspirin use with immunotherapy30
- Improved five-year progression-free survival and a lower risk of developing metastasis31
- Inhibited gene mutations which can contribute to uncontrolled proliferation of cells and also induced cell death (apoptosis), improving survival32
- Induced cell death (apoptosis), improving survival and reducing recurrence in metastatic colorectal cancer33
- Slowed polyp progression in patients with hereditary nonpolyposis colorectal cancer34
- Decreased tumor size (tumor downstaging) with use during neo-adjuvant therapy (therapy prior to the main therapy)35 and during chemoradiation before surgery for rectal cancer36
- No improvements in toxicity or response rate (pathological complete response rate) in rectal cancer patients undergoing neo-adjuvant long-course radiation therapy37
Non-aspirin NSAIDs
Head and Neck Cancer
All NSAIDs Combined
- Considerably improved cancer-specific survival when used six months or more among people with head and neck cancer with PIK3CA mutations or amplification (PIK3CA-altered)40
Lung Cancer
All NSAIDs combined
- Lower risk of distant metastasis with use at the beginning of surgery with non-small cell lung cancer41
Non-aspirin NSAIDs
Ovarian Cancer
All NSAIDs Combined
- Improved ovarian cancer-specific and overall survival with recent use of aspirin and non-aspirin NSAIDs after diagnosis,44 but because evidence is preliminary, one review declined to classify the impact regarding benefit45
Non-aspirin NSAIDs
- Improved survival of serous ovarian cancer with more intensive use after diagnosis46
Pancreatic Cancer
Non-aspirin NSAIDs
- Progression-free response for 16 months after diagnosis with inoperable pancreatic cancer with long-term use of a combination product of diclofenac, cimetidine, low-dose cyclophosphamide and sulfasalazine, plus gemcitabine in a case study47
Prostate Cancer
Sarcoma
Non-aspirin NSAIDs
Diclofenac
- Anticancer effects, including positive responses in case studies in these conditions:52
- Desmoid tumours (metronomic treatment)
- Inflammatory myofibroblastic tumors
Stomach Cancer
Non-aspirin NSAIDs
Celecoxib (Celebrex)
- Improved progression-free and overall survival in people with metastatic or postoperative recurrent stomach (gastric) cancer when combined with chemotherapy, but only among those who were positive for COX-2 expression (which influences tumor invasiveness and inflammatory responses)53
Lab and Animal Evidence
A sample of preclinical evidence in several types of cancer
All NSAIDS Combined
Aspirin
- Breast cancer: increased death of mutant PIK3CA breast cancer cells56
- Colorectal cancer:
- Ovarian cancer: phosphatidylcholine-associated aspirin (aspirin-PC) showed anticancer effects in cells and reduced ovarian cancer growth by 50 percent to 90 percent in animals, with no detectable gastrointestinal toxicity; the effect was enhanced in combination with bevacizumab (Avastin) or B20.59
- Pancreatic cancer: reversed or inhibited the activity of platelets promoting pancreatic cancer cell proliferation and metastasis60
Non-aspirin NSAIDs
Celecoxib (Celebrex)
- Anticancer effects from a combination dose of celecoxib and fish oil in rats61
- Anticancer effects in breast cancer, including sensitizing tumors to antitumor drugs62
- Anticancer effects in colorectal cancer,63 including increased sensitivity of colon cancer cells to radiotherapy64
- Anticancer effects in melanoma when used with rapamycin65
- Anticancer effects in ovarian cancer:66
- Improved survival in rats67
- Decreased proliferation, increased programmed cell death (apoptosis) and other anticancer effects in animal studies68
- Significantly enhanced effects of cisplatin on intrinsically resistant primary ovarian cancer cells when used in combination with sorafenib and sildenafil before chemotherapy, with more limited results for oxaliplatin and carboplatin69
- Anticancer effects in prostate cancer,70 including when used jointly with other therapies:
Diclofenac
- Antiproliferative, anti-angiogenic and other anticancer effects in these cancers:74
- Adrenal gland tumors (neuroblastoma)
- Brain cancer (glioma)
- Colorectal cancer
- Leukemia
- Liver (hepatocellular)
- Melanoma
- Ovarian
- Pancreatic
- Prostate
- Sarcoma (fibrosarcoma)
Indomethacin
- Increased sensitivity to doxorubicin in esophageal squamous cell carcinoma cells75
Noscapine
- Ovarian cancer:
- Effective against taxane-resistant ovarian cancer with minimal neurotoxicity or immunosuppression in mice76
- Inhibited proliferation of both paclitaxel-sensitive and paclitaxel-resistant human ovarian carcinoma cells77
- Increased anticancer activity of cisplatin against drug-resistant ovarian cancer cells78
- Increased cell death (apoptosis) in ovarian cancer cells79
Optimizing Your Terrain
See Body Terrain and the Tumor Microenvironment.
All NSAIDs Combined
- Anti-inflammatory80
Aspirin
- Anti-inflammatory81
Non-aspirin NSAIDs
Celecoxib
- Reduced the COX-2 inhibition on signalling proteins (chemokines)—associated with improved survival—in high-grade serous ovarian cancer82
- Improved inflammatory response in liver cancer cells83
- Affected genes and pathways involved in inflammation and malignant transformation in tumors but not normal tissues84
- Regulated the immune system and the tumor microenvironment in cell studies for breast cancer85
- Reduced CRP—a marker of inflammation—when combined with fish oil supplementation in patients with advanced and progressive lung cancer86
- Reduced markers of inflammation when combining celecoxib with megestrol acetate (MA), carnitine and antioxidants in women with advanced gynecological cancer, compared to MA alone87
- Suppressed systemic inflammation and led to weight gain in cachetic animals with colon or head and neck cancers88
Diclofenac
- Immune system support and effects89
- Altered glucose metabolism in cell lines of leukemia, melanoma and prostate cancer90
Ibuprofen
- Reduced CRP levels—a marker of inflammation—in patients with advanced metastatic gastrointestinal cancer when combined with megestrol acetate (MA)91
Managing Side Effects and Promoting Wellness
Changes in Appetite
Non-aspirin NSAIDs
Fatigue
Non-aspirin NSAIDs
Celecoxib
Pain
The main use of NSAIDs is to reduce fever and pain95 Because NSAIDs are so effective in reducing pain and inflammation, they are some of the most commonly used medications.96 The World Health Organization includes aspirin (acetylsalicylic acid) and ibuprofen (Advil, Motrin and other brands) in their 2019 Model List of Essential Medicines.
All NSAIDS Combined
- Reduced pain intensity, provided pain relief in cancer pain and reduced use of opioids97
Non-aspirin NSAIDs
Diclofenac
- Reduced cancer-related pain98
Indomethacin
- Reduced pain and use of additional analgetics99
Quality of Life
All NSAIDs Combined
- May improve self-reported quality of life100
Non-aspirin NSAIDs
Ibuprofen
- Improved quality of life in patients with advanced metastatic gastrointestinal cancer when combined with megestrol acetate (MA)101
Celecoxib
- Improved global quality of life when combining celecoxib with megestrol acetate (MA), carnitine and antioxidants in women with advanced gynecological cancer, compared to MA alone102
- Higher overall quality of life among people with metastatic or postoperative recurrent stomach (gastric) cancer when combined with chemotherapy, compared to a control group103
Wasting (Cachexia)
For Health Professionals: Managing CachexiaOne author advises that single or multiple drugs alone are not sufficient to treat cachexia. Drugs need to be combined with dietary counseling, supplementation, symptom management, and exercise.104 Also, consider that many of the patients with cachexia usually have multiple other symptoms and are frail and often elderly. Use the lowest effective dose of NSAIDs for the shortest period of time and monitor regularly for early detection of adverse events.105 |
All NSAIDs Combined
- May improve weight, but evidence in 2013 was not strong enough to recommend using NSAIDs for cancer cachexia outside of clinical trials106
Non-aspirin NSAIDs
Celecoxib (Celebrex)
- Improved body weight and handgrip strength with celecoxib and fish oil supplementation in patients with advanced and progressive lung cancer107
- Increased lean body mass, improved resting energy expenditure when combining celecoxib with megestrol acetate (MA), carnitine and antioxidants in women with advanced gynecological cancer108
- Improved body weight and body mass in people with gastrointestinal or head and neck cancer109
- Preclinical evidence: suppressed systemic inflammation and led to weight gain in cachetic animals with colon or head and neck cancers110
Ibuprofen (Advil, Motrin and other brands)
- Improved weight in patients with advanced metastatic gastrointestinal cancer when combined with megestrol acetate (MA)111
Indomethacin
Other Side Effects and Symptoms
All NSAIDs Combined
- May improve physical performance114
Aspirin
- Reduced events related to vascular disease (abnormal condition of the blood vessels), including blood clots in deep veins (venous thromboembolism)115
Non-aspirin NSAIDs
Celecoxib (Celebrex)
- No difference in the incidence of nausea of vomiting, neutropenia, loss of appetite (anorexia), peripheral neurotoxicity, diarrhea, weakness (asthenia) and low levels of platelets (thrombocytopenia) among people with metastatic or postoperative recurrent stomach (gastric) cancer when combined with chemotherapy, compared to a control group116
Reducing Risk
Clinical Evidence
Bladder Cancer
Aspirin
- No reduced risk among individuals aged 65 years or older117
Breast Cancer
All NSAIDs Combined
- Reduced recurrence118
- Reduced risk, especially with aspirin and COX-2 inhibitors,119 but restricted to estrogen-positive, progesterone-positive (ER/PR+) tumors in one analysis120
- Reduced risk of lymph nodes containing cancer cells (positive lymph nodes) and larger tumors121
Aspirin
- Reduced breast cancer risk in some studies,122 though risk may vary by cancer type and menopausal status, with decreased risk of in situ breast tumors or hormone receptor-positive tumors and reduced risk in postmenopausal women123
- No reduced risk was seen among individuals aged 65 years or older124
Non-aspirin NSAIDs
Colorectal Cancer
All NSAIDs Combined
- Reduced risk of colorectal cancer,131 especially of distal colon cancer, at higher doses, in women and in Caucasians132
- Inhibited gene mutations that are linked to uncontrolled proliferation of cells, and also induced cell death (apoptosis), reducing recurrence133
Aspirin
- Recommended by the US Preventive Services Task Force for primary prevention of colorectal cancer134
- Reduced risk of colorectal cancer135 including in people with hereditary colorectal cancer (Lynch syndrome)136
- Inhibited gene mutations that are linked to uncontrolled proliferation of cells, and also induced cell death (apoptosis), reducing recurrence137
- Reduced risk may depend on dose and may interact with height, weight and age of the individual;138 no reduced risk was seen among individuals aged 65 years or older in one large study,139 while another study found reduced risk in those over 70 only if use was initiated when younger140
- Prevented recurrence of colorectal adenomas,141 including possibly in individuals with an increased risk of colorectal cancer142
- Slowed polyp progression in patients with hereditary nonpolyposis colorectal cancer143
Non-aspirin NSAIDs
- Cardiac toxicity currently limits use, as most studies conclude that risks of serious cardiovascular events outweigh the preventive benefits of long-term use144
- COX-2 inhibitors: reduced risk of adenomas and colorectal cancer145 and of recurrent colorectal adenomas and advanced adenomas when taken for two to four years, with a trend of an increased risk of recurrent adenomas two years after stopping use146
- Sulindac: reduced number and size of colorectal adenomas in people with Lynch syndrome147 and in people with hereditary nonpolyposis colorectal cancer;148 including when when used with difluoromethylornithine (DFMO), without a significant increase in adverse events149
Esophageal Cancer
Aspirin
- No reduced risk of esophageal cancer among individuals aged 65 years or older150
Liver Cancer
Aspirin
- Reduced risk of liver cancer in patients with chronic viral hepatitis without raising risk of gastrointestinal bleeding with low-dose use (160 mg or less)151
Lung Cancer
Aspirin
- No reduced risk of lung cancer among individuals aged 65 years or older152
Pancreatic Cancer
Aspirin
- No reduced risk of pancreatic cancer among individuals aged 65 years or older153
Prostate Cancer
All NSAIDs Combined
- Reduced risk of prostate cancer, especially with NSAIDs that inhibit COX‐2 activity154
Aspirin
- Reduced risk of prostate cancer155
- Decreased risk of advanced stage prostate cancer in men of African-American descent156
- Reduced incidence of lethal cancers (metastatic or fatal)157
- No reduced risk among individuals aged 65 years or older158
Non-aspirin NSAIDs
- Decreased risk of prostate cancer, particularly among men with an aggressive prostate cancer or a personal history of prostatitis159
- Trend toward reduced risk of total, low- or high-grade prostate cancer, but not statistically significant160
- COX-2 inhibitors: reduced risk of developing prostate cancer161
Stomach Cancer
Aspirin
- No reduced risk of stomach cancer among individuals aged 65 years or older162
Uterine Cancer
Aspirin
- No reduced risk of uterine cancer among individuals aged 65 years or older163
Lab and Animal Evidence
Aspirin
- Colorectal cancer: reduced cancer cell proliferation and metastasis164
Non-aspirin NSAIDs
- Colorectal cancer: reduced risk of colon cancer in mice with naproxen use165
Integrative Programs, Protocols and Medical Systems
| For more information about programs and protocols, see our Integrative Programs and Protocols page. |
- Programs and protocols
Cautions
NSAIDs can have serious, even life-threatening side effects. Some NSAIDs have more frequent or more serious side effects than others. Use them only under medical supervision.
Caution is advised for those with hypertension or risk factors for gastrointestinal bleeding. Discontinuing NSAID use in cancer patients is not advised in one review, but careful monitoring for side effects such as cardiovascular events (COX-2) or gastrointestinal bleeding is recommended.169
One study found a trend toward increased risk of cancer progression with use by elderly patients with stage 3 or 4 cancers.170
Side Effects
All NSAIDs, including Aspirin
All NSAIDs, including those available over-the-counter, can have these side effects:
- Allergic reactions, including potentially serious reactions
- Bleeding, including bleeding of the stomach or intestines or within the skull
- Drowsiness
- Excess stomach acid secretion
- Gastrointestinal upset, nausea or ulcers (risk of ulcers is increased with alcohol use)
- Heartburn
- Nausea
- Worsening asthma symptoms
Aspirin
In addition to the side effects and risks mentioned above, aspirin may also cause these symptoms and conditions:171
| Common side effects | Rare side effects |
|---|---|
|
|
Non-aspirin NSAIDs
The US Food and Drug Administration warns that ibuprofen (Advil, Motrin and other brands), naproxen (Aleve and other brands), diclofenac, celecoxib (Celebrex) and other NSAIDs increase the risk of heart attack or stroke, even after just a few weeks of use. Medical supervision is strongly advised with all NSAIDs.172
Other side effects (in addition to those listed above for all NSAIDs):173
| Common side effects | Rare side effects |
|---|---|
|
|
Because of these risks, many researchers investigating use of NSAIDs other than aspirin for reducing cancer risk have concluded that risks of serious cardiovascular events outweigh the cancer-preventive benefits of long-term use.174
Drug Interactions
- Celecoxib (Celebrex)175
- Increases the concentration of lithium in the blood and may increase the blood-thinning effect of warfarin (Coumadin)
- Fluconazole (Diflucan) impairs metabolism of celecoxib (Celebrex), increasing its level in the body.
Further drug interactions are listed by the National Health Service: NSAIDs.
Commentary
BCCT advisor Keith Block, MD,176 and Raymond Chang, MD,177 prescribe COX-2 inhibitors such as celecoxib (Celebrex) in a variety of cancers, including breast cancer. Dr. Block prefers to get at the root of inflammation using diet and other non-drug approaches, but in some situations he uses Celebrex to block the COX-2 enzyme, “since the inflammatory chemicals the enzyme spawns play a major role in blocking the effectiveness of chemotherapy and radiation.”178
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